語法是一個(gè)民族運(yùn)用一種語言時(shí)句子層面所遵循的規(guī)則，也就是說，是大家造句或理解句子所遵循的規(guī)則。語法不是語言學(xué)家規(guī)定的，我們也不是為學(xué)語法而學(xué)語法。語法是對(duì)現(xiàn)成語言中規(guī)則的歸納和總結(jié)，以便學(xué)習(xí)者更快模仿掌握一門外語。所以語法知識(shí)很重要，你不能用漢語的語法規(guī)則來造英語的句子，那樣懂英語的人讀不懂，同樣不懂英語的語法規(guī)則也絕對(duì)讀不懂英語短文。所幸的是，英語的規(guī)則既嚴(yán)格又簡(jiǎn)單明確，隨意性不大。因此被列為世界上最好學(xué)的語言之一，它實(shí)際上已經(jīng)取代了世界語的地位。

第一講   簡(jiǎn)單句的構(gòu)成

簡(jiǎn)單句的構(gòu)成是英語句子結(jié)構(gòu)知識(shí)的基礎(chǔ)，不論多么長(zhǎng)多么復(fù)雜的句子都是簡(jiǎn)單句演變來的，所以簡(jiǎn)單句的相關(guān)知識(shí)是非常重要和基本的。

一．詞性 (詞類) part of speech

學(xué)習(xí)英語，有兩個(gè)概念一定要搞清楚，一是詞性，一是句子成分。

為什么要學(xué)習(xí)詞性呢？詞性是一個(gè)單詞在句子中使用的標(biāo)簽。一個(gè)詞性對(duì)應(yīng)一個(gè)或幾個(gè)句子成分；一個(gè)句子成分對(duì)應(yīng)一個(gè)或幾個(gè)詞性。張道真在《實(shí)用英語語法》中講到詞性時(shí)說：要學(xué)好英語，第一件事就是分清詞類。 每學(xué)一個(gè)詞都要知道它屬于哪個(gè)詞類?？梢娝闹匾浴?/p>

大家知道英語有十種詞性: 名詞,代詞,數(shù)詞,形容詞,動(dòng)詞,副詞,冠詞,介詞,連詞,感嘆詞，我們需著重學(xué)習(xí)其中五類的用法：

二. 句子成分，五種句型

一個(gè)句子有哪些成分，這與句子結(jié)構(gòu)有關(guān)，或者說與它是哪種句型有關(guān)。

1.  五種基本句型, 主要句子成分

句型一：  主語+系動(dòng)詞+表語 (表語可以是名詞，形容詞或介詞短語)

That girl was my fiancée.              那個(gè)女孩是我未婚妻。

The story is about my son.             這個(gè)故事是關(guān)于我兒子的。

The flower is red.

除了be動(dòng)詞，還有一些表示狀態(tài)，變化的詞，如feel, look, smell, taste, sound, seem, appear, become, get, grow, turn, go, come, ran, fall, prove, remain, stay, keep等，也可作系動(dòng)詞用，如：

She felt a bit dizzy.                   她感到有點(diǎn)頭暈。

You are not looking very well.   (well 除了作“身體健康”解時(shí)作形容詞，其他情況作副詞, 如：He performs well

in school.)

The dish smells good.                這盤菜聞起來不錯(cuò)。

The medicine tastes awful.            這藥吃起來糟透了。

The report sounds true.               這報(bào)道聽起來是真實(shí)的。

He seemed quite normal.             他看起來很正常。

She appeared calm.                  她顯得很鎮(zhèn)靜。

His advice proved sound.             他的建議證明是合理的。

She remained calm.                  她保持平靜。

They stayed awake to see the eclipse.              他們熬夜看月蝕。

He looked in splendid health.               他看起來健康狀況極好。

句型二：  主語+不及物動(dòng)詞

The sun is rising.                  太陽正在升起。

Tim is sleeping.                     蒂姆正在睡覺。

The accident occurred suddenly.        事故突然發(fā)生了。

It is snowing.                       天在下雪。

The train is arriving.                 火車要到站了。

We waited and waited.               我們等了又等。

He danced for joy.                      她高興地跳起舞來。

She often dreams.                       她常常做夢(mèng)。

She trembled all over.                    她渾身發(fā)抖。

句型三：  主語+及物動(dòng)詞+賓語

He loved poetry.                            他熱愛詩歌。

Have you ordered your meal?                  你點(diǎn)了菜了嗎？

Silence means consent.                       沉默意味著默許。

He left school in 1998.                       他1998年離校。

What did he say?                            他說的什么？

句型四：  主語+及物動(dòng)詞+間接賓語+直接賓語

He showed me the way.                    他給我指了路。

She gave me her telephone number.             他給了我電話號(hào)碼。

He handed me the letter.                    他把信遞給了我。

Please throw me the key.                   請(qǐng)把鑰匙扔給我。

They awarded her a special scholarship.        他們頒發(fā)她一項(xiàng)特別獎(jiǎng)學(xué)金。

They never denied us assistance.              他們從不拒絕給我們幫助。

He assigned the students a few books to read.    他指定了幾本書給學(xué)生讀。

Can you lend us your car?                   你能把車借給我嗎？

I owned him $50.                          我欠他五十美元。

They appointed him commander.              他們?nèi)蚊傊笓]。

She sang us a folk song.                      她給我們唱了首民歌。

She found you a position.                     她給你找了個(gè)職位。

He bought himself a new suit.                 他給自己買了套新衣服。

She cooked us a delicious meal.                她給我們做了一頓美味的飯菜。

Could you fetch me the evening paper?          你能否給我把晚報(bào)拿來？

That’ll save us a lot of trouble.                 那會(huì)省去我們不少麻煩。

They fined her $200.                       他們罰了她二百美元的款。

Careless driving cost him his life.            開車馬虎使他陪了命。

They forgave him his crimes.               他們寬恕了他的罪行。

句型五：  主語+及物動(dòng)詞+賓語+賓語補(bǔ)足語 （形容詞，名詞，介短可充當(dāng)賓補(bǔ)）

He found his new job rather boring.       他發(fā)現(xiàn)他的新工作相當(dāng)乏味。

Sit down and make yourself comfortable.   坐下來，坐舒服。

He got his clothes wet.                  他把衣服弄濕了。

Good food keeps you healthy.            良好的飲食使人健康。

I’ll have my hair cut this evening.         今晚我要把頭發(fā)剪了。

The noise was driving him mad.          噪音快讓我瘋了。

I like my tea very strong.                我喜歡喝濃點(diǎn)的茶。

Facts have proved these worries groundless.      事實(shí)證實(shí)這些憂慮毫無根據(jù)。

Finally they set him free.                     最后他們把他放了。

~They call their daughter Mary.      他們叫女兒瑪麗。

They name the city Leningrad.      他們把這座城市命名為列寧格勒。

We elected Smith our chairman.     我們選史密斯為主席。

All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.   只工作不玩耍，聰明小孩也變傻。

The appointed him chairman of the committee. 他們?nèi)蚊麨橹魅挝瘑T

We all consider the book a master piece.      我們都認(rèn)為這本書是杰作。

The doctor thought that a good sign.          醫(yī)生認(rèn)為這是一個(gè)好跡象。

They kept their marriage a secret.            他們對(duì)結(jié)婚保密。

Shelley counted this experience a part of his education.    雪萊把這段經(jīng)歷看作是他經(jīng)受的一段教育。

~I found her in better spirits when we met again. 再次見面時(shí)我發(fā)現(xiàn)她精神好些了。

This placed her in a very difficult position.     這使她處境很困難。

They soon got the fire under control.               他們不久就控制了火勢(shì)。

This will bring us all into harmony.                 這回會(huì)使我們和睦起來。

下面這些意義的正確表達(dá)就關(guān)系到動(dòng)詞的正確用法。

*計(jì)算機(jī)給我們帶來了方便.                        bring us convenient

*我們的世界變得越來越現(xiàn)代化.                    change modern

*這些現(xiàn)代設(shè)施使我們生活不那么悲慘.              make our life was not miserable

*以前我們用蠟燭照明.                            we light use candle

*象這樣的例子有很多.                            As this example is a lot.

注意：a.“及物動(dòng)詞+雙賓”與“及物動(dòng)詞+復(fù)合賓語”的區(qū)別：“及物動(dòng)詞+雙賓”句型中兩個(gè)賓語都是名詞，都是這個(gè)及物動(dòng)詞的賓語；而在“及物動(dòng)詞+復(fù)合賓語”句型中，賓補(bǔ)可以不是名詞，賓語和賓補(bǔ)之間有邏輯上的主謂關(guān)系。如：He teaches me English. 就是“及物動(dòng)詞+雙賓”結(jié)構(gòu)；He called me Jean. 就是“及物動(dòng)詞+復(fù)合賓語”結(jié)構(gòu)。

b． 除以上五種句型外，還有一種特殊的表示客觀存在的there be 句型。

c.   每一個(gè)陳述句都有否定和疑問形式，注意各種時(shí)態(tài)的形式變化。

d.  當(dāng)表示命令或乞求時(shí)，不用陳述句形式，而用祁使句形式，即無主語，用動(dòng)詞原形開頭。

2. 次要成分

大家看到各種句型的句子分別有哪些句子成分了。 以上這些成分都是必要成分，也就是說，某種句型的句子必須要具備其完整的句子成分。具體用哪個(gè)句型與你表達(dá)的意義有關(guān)，與你選用的動(dòng)詞也有關(guān)。比如說，你要表達(dá)“他找到了一個(gè)新工作”就可用句型3：主語+及物動(dòng)詞+賓語，He found a new job；而要表達(dá)“他發(fā)現(xiàn)他的新工作相當(dāng)乏味?！眲t用句型5：主語+及物動(dòng)詞+賓語+賓補(bǔ), He found his new job rather boring。有的動(dòng)詞可以

有多種用法，用于多個(gè)句型。有的動(dòng)詞用在不同句型中時(shí)意義不同，如He found a new job和 He found his new job rather boring中的find, 因?yàn)閯?dòng)詞的用法和它的意義是相應(yīng)的。但是我們看到的英語句子為什么經(jīng)常不象我們上面說的那樣簡(jiǎn)單呢？原因之一就是除了以上必要成分，還有兩種次要成分：定語和狀語。之所以叫次要成分是因?yàn)橐粋€(gè)句子沒有定語狀語也是成立的。 如：The hospital is big. Everyone works. He loved poetry. They awarded her a scholarship。但事實(shí)上很少有有這樣簡(jiǎn)單的句子。它們的信息量太少了，句意不明確。所以雖然叫次要成分其實(shí)是非常重要，非常常見的的成分。定語是修飾名詞的，狀語是修飾動(dòng)詞，形容詞，副詞或整個(gè)句子的。一個(gè)名詞可以有多個(gè)定語從不同角度修飾它，一個(gè)動(dòng)詞也可以有多個(gè)狀語。如：The hospital run by my father was big enough to hold 1000 patient during the anti-Japanese war period.

A beautiful flower comes out in the garden.         summer vacation

The flower in the vase is expensive.                Childhood friend

I have something important to do.                  Greenhouse effect

狀語：句中修飾動(dòng)詞，形容詞或整個(gè)句子的成分，可以由副詞，或介詞短語充當(dāng)。

Listen attentively                     attentively 是狀語,修飾動(dòng)詞listen;

He said in contempt.                  in contempt 是狀語,修飾動(dòng)詞 said;

live a comparatively wealthy life       comparatively 是狀語,修飾形容詞 wealthy;

Summer reading was not the innocent entertainment I had assumed it to be, not a light-hearted, instantly forgettable escape in a hammock.

instantly 是狀語,修飾形容詞 forgettable

3． 句子的種類

在英語中，一個(gè)句號(hào)標(biāo)志著一個(gè)句子的結(jié)束。英語的句號(hào)和漢語的句號(hào)作用不一樣，漢語的句號(hào)表示一個(gè)意思表達(dá)完了，起意義輔助作用；英語表示一個(gè)句子結(jié)構(gòu)完整了，起語法輔助作用。

英語的句子種類有三種：

簡(jiǎn)單句，只有一套主謂結(jié)構(gòu)；只能是我們前面講的五種句型或there be 句型中的一種。

并列句，由并列連詞and, but, or, for 等將兩個(gè)或多個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)完整的簡(jiǎn)單句連接在一起形成的更高級(jí)更復(fù)雜的句子。 復(fù)合句，當(dāng)一個(gè)句子的某個(gè)成分由一個(gè)句子充當(dāng)時(shí)，這個(gè)句子就是復(fù)合句。

第二講    復(fù)雜句子的理解與造句

在實(shí)際生活中，由于表達(dá)的需要，我們不僅需要一個(gè)詞的概念作一個(gè)句子成分，還可能需要一個(gè)動(dòng)作的概念甚至一個(gè)句子的概念來作句子成分，比如：我們可能會(huì)說：藥能幫助你退燒，Medicine can help you relieve the fever; 也可能會(huì)說：洗個(gè)涼水澡能幫助你退燒， having a cool shower can help you relieve the fever.

我們可能會(huì)說：新鮮的雞蛋非常有營(yíng)養(yǎng)，fresh eggs can be very nutritious; 也可能會(huì)說：煮的半生的雞蛋非常有營(yíng)養(yǎng)，half-done eggs can be very nutritious; 也可能說，曾被科考隊(duì)帶到南極去的雞蛋非常有營(yíng)養(yǎng)，the eggs that had been taken to the south pole by the scientific expedition are very nutritious; 還可以說：科學(xué)家們?nèi)ツ昱嘤男缕贩N的雞產(chǎn)的蛋非常有營(yíng)養(yǎng)，the eggs produced by the new breed of hens the scientists produced last year are very nutritious。

可見除了詞類可直接作句子成分，非謂語形式和從句也是構(gòu)成句子成分的重要內(nèi)容。但要正確理解全句的

關(guān)鍵是抓住句子的主干，即全句的主語和謂語。那么怎么抓全句的主謂成分呢？分清英語動(dòng)詞的謂語形式和非謂語形式就顯得至關(guān)重要。

一． 動(dòng)詞的謂語形式和非謂語形式

謂語形式又叫限定形式。 什么意思呢？就是說，作謂語這個(gè)動(dòng)詞的形式受時(shí)態(tài)和主語人稱限制，作相應(yīng)的形式變化，不能是原形，或非謂語形式。所以任何一個(gè)句子的謂語都有時(shí)態(tài)變化和人稱變化，如：

She bought chicken and turkey.

This is a strong wine.

I walk for two hours every day.

He walks for two hours every day.

但是，句子不可能都這樣簡(jiǎn)短，這樣信息量太少。一個(gè)句子中動(dòng)詞常常不止一個(gè)，那么除了謂語動(dòng)詞，其它動(dòng)詞只能用非謂語形式，作非謂語成分，如主語，賓語，賓補(bǔ)，定語，狀語。

非謂語形式又叫非限定形式，即不受句子時(shí)態(tài)人稱限制。如：I want to buy a book.。 I wanted to buy a book.。 非謂語動(dòng)詞有三種形式：不定式 to do，分詞形式doing, done，動(dòng)名詞形式doing。

非謂語動(dòng)詞在句中可以充當(dāng)除了謂語之外的任何成分，具體如下：

不定式的用法

1． 作主語

To compromise appears advisable.

To ignore this might have serious consequences.

To stop the work now seems impossible.

但這種情況下往往用it作形式主語，而把不定式真正主語放到后面去，避免主語太長(zhǎng)出現(xiàn)頭重腳輕的現(xiàn)象。 To say which is better is difficult. → It is difficult to say which is better.

To know all these facts is essential. → It is essential to know all these facts.

It’s an honour to meet you.

It’s a pity to waste so much money.

2． 作表語

His ambition was to be a film star.

His goal is to be a scientist.

This wall is to keep people out of the garden.

3． 作賓語

有些動(dòng)詞的承受者不一定是have a good idea, steal money 這樣的名詞概念，也可能是個(gè)動(dòng)作，如“同意做某事，拒絕投降，停止抱怨，他承認(rèn)犯了個(gè)錯(cuò)誤”等。那么用英語怎么表達(dá)呢？在英語中這個(gè)動(dòng)詞后的動(dòng)詞就不可能是謂語形式，而只能是非謂語形式了。至于用哪種非謂形式，就看前面那個(gè)主要?jiǎng)釉~的要求了。如：同意agree to do sth； 拒絕refuse to surrender；停止stop complaining；承認(rèn)he admitted making a mistake。哪些動(dòng)詞后面要求不定式，哪些要求動(dòng)名詞，大家要記一記。但也不完全是死記，一般說來，不定式表示即將發(fā)出的動(dòng)作，動(dòng)名詞表示整個(gè)動(dòng)作。

要求不定式作賓語的動(dòng)詞有：

afford v.(供的起，出得起，買的起)        I can’t afford to buy you a car, darling!

其它用法：I can’t afford your tuition.

agree v. (同意，答應(yīng)，一致)              He agreed to pay $4,ooo for the car.

aim v.（目標(biāo)是，旨在）                  Harry aims to become a doctor.

attempt v. (試圖，企圖)          They were caught when they were attempting to flee.

begin  （開始）                 He began to prepare for the dinner.

bother（麻煩，take trouble）    Don’t bother to answer the letter personally.

我們把某些形容詞后帶的不定式也叫定語，如：

She was eager to see her friends.

I am afraid to tell her.

I was sorry to hear that you were ill.

Helen was pleased to see him.

I’m proud to be a Chinese.

She was surprised to see George walk in.

4． 作賓補(bǔ)

advise （建議）         the doctor advised me to rest for a week.

allow （允許）              please allow me to introduce myself.

ask （請(qǐng)求…做…；叫…做…）   I asked Gorge to convey my best wishes to his mother.

beg （乞求）                   He begged her to forgive him.

cause （致使，導(dǎo)致）           what has caused the plants to die?

challenge （挑戰(zhàn)）               he challenged me to fight.

command  （命令）                the officer commanded his man to fire.

但在某些感觀動(dòng)詞(see, watch, hear, feel)使  動(dòng)詞(have, make let) 及notice后的不定式須省略to.如:

Did you see anyone enter the house?

I heard her lock the door.

She won’t let me do it.

Did you notice a man came in?

I won’t have him cheat me like that.

5． 作定語

We have a lot of things to do today.

This is not the right attitude to take.

He was the second man to hear the news.

He was the only one to survive the crash.

6． 作狀語

不定式主要作目的狀語，如：

We slept together to keep warm.

To do good work, one must have the proper tools.

作結(jié)果狀語主要用于only to 結(jié)構(gòu)中表一種出乎意料的情況，如：

He hurried to the place only to find the house empty.

If you arrive so late at the airport to find the guest has gone already, what’s the use of your going there?

不定式的邏輯主語

It won’t be easy to find a new job. → It won’t be easy for you to find a new job.

It isn’t right to marry for money. → It isn’t right for people to marry for money.

To run fast is dangerous. → for an old man to run fast is dangerous.

There’s no reason to doubt his words. →   There’s no reason for us to doubt his words.

動(dòng)名詞

我們?cè)谇懊嬲f了，由于表達(dá)的需要，主語，賓語，表語不一定是個(gè)名詞概念，可能是個(gè)動(dòng)詞或動(dòng)詞短語，如：現(xiàn)在找工作不容易；散步是我唯一的運(yùn)動(dòng)。這里的“找工作”和“散步”既是動(dòng)詞（動(dòng)詞短語），又要作主語，就只能用動(dòng)名詞（finding a job, walking）了。

動(dòng)名詞實(shí)際上就是動(dòng)詞或動(dòng)詞短語加上ing 后，句法作用變成了名詞。所以名詞在句中有什么功能，動(dòng)名詞在句中就有什么功能，也就是說，名詞在句中可作主語，賓語（介詞賓語），表語，賓補(bǔ)，動(dòng)名詞也可作這些成分。

Her hobby is collecting stamps. (表語)   ①

Growing rose is her hobby. （主語）  ②

Gambling is forbidden in our country. （主語）  ③

There pastime is going to movies. (表語)  ④

Please stop talking. （賓語）

He was arrested for smuggling.（介詞賓語）

不定式在句中大致也能作這些成分，那么他們的區(qū)別是什么呢？要抓住不定式和動(dòng)名詞的基本意義：不定式表示一個(gè)動(dòng)作即將發(fā)出，而動(dòng)名詞表示這個(gè)動(dòng)作的概念。

以上①②③④四個(gè)例句中的動(dòng)名詞換成不定式顯然就不合適了。

再如To compromise appears advisable.

To stop the work now seems impossible.

不定式和動(dòng)名詞作賓語的區(qū)別也基于兩者基本意義的差異，為了保險(xiǎn)起見，大家最好記住接不定式作賓語和動(dòng)名詞作賓語的動(dòng)詞，以便自動(dòng)使用。

I suggested bring the meeting to an end.

He admitted taking the money.

Do you enjoy teaching?

Avoid over-eating.

I couldn’t help laughing.

He considered going to see Paul in person.

He loves playing the piano.

I hate lying and cheating.

He kept complaining.

I couldn’t risk missing the train.

They’re practicing singing the new song.

He denied making any statement to that effect.

So you prefer living abroad?

Would you mind moving your car？

He didn’t recall saying it.

Your coat wants brushing.

動(dòng)名詞的邏輯主語

Their coming up to help was a great encouragement to us.

Mary’s grumbling annoyed him.

動(dòng)名詞還有一個(gè)重要的功能，就是作定語：

swimming pool     swimming suit     speaking contest    sleeping pill     drawing pin

writing paper    diving board       filling station       watering can       drinking water

waiting room     walking stick      parking lot       sewing machine       hearing aid

operating table    fishing line        sleeping bag         writing desk

分詞

分詞在句中的主要作用是作定語和狀語，它的基本意義大家可以通過下面幾個(gè)例句來理解：

現(xiàn)在分詞

The manager approached us smiling

He rode away whistling.

Who is the woman talking to Jim?

There were 220 children studying in the art school.

The girl sitting next to me was my cousin.

通過分析以上例句，可見現(xiàn)在分詞的邏輯主語是句子的主語，為了避免再用一套主謂結(jié)構(gòu)，英語采用了分詞形式。 過去分詞

What is the language spoken in that country?

In the end the program offered by Wilson was adopted.

The experience gained will be of great value to us.

Seen from the hill, the city looks magnificent.

Judged by ordinary standards, he was reliable.

They came in, followed by their wives.

可見，現(xiàn)在分詞和過去分詞的作用是一樣的，只是現(xiàn)在分詞和句子主語之間是一種主謂關(guān)系，而過去分詞和句子主語之間是一種動(dòng)賓關(guān)系。

從句

從句共分三類：名詞性從句，形容詞性從句，狀語性從句

1． 名詞性從句（主語從句，賓語從句，表語從句，同位語從句）

名詞性從句有三種類型：

1. That 引導(dǎo)的

That prices will go up is certain. → it is certain that prices will go up.

It’s a shame that you’re sick.

It’s said that there has been an earthquake in India.

I’ll call Betty and remind her that we are meeting at 8.

She informed me that she was to send for it the next day.

He assured the passengers that there was no danger.

2. 由連接代（副）詞引導(dǎo)的

When he’ll be back depends much on the weather.

Whether the game will be held is uncertain. → it’s uncertain whether we’ll be able to come.

It was not clear to me why he behaved like that.

How the burglars got in was a mystery. → It was a mystery how the burglars got in.

It’s a puzzle how life began.

3. 由關(guān)系代詞what 或whatever 引導(dǎo)的

What follows is the narrative of his experiences.

What he saw made him tremble.

They are not affected by what he said.

Give it to whoever you like.

2． 定語從句

The man (who robbed him) has been arrested.

The friend (with whom I was traveling) spoke French.

The film is about a spy (whose wife betrays him).

The car (which I hired) broke down.

At the time (when I saw him), he was quite strong.

This is the village (where I was born).

3． 狀語從句

有些副詞， 如directly和immediately亦可引導(dǎo)時(shí)間狀語從句，其意義相當(dāng)于as soon as, 如：

(1) I will come directly I have finished.

(2) Immediately he arrived, he started telling me what to do.

下句中hardly (scarcely)…when…與 no sooner… than…的意義也相當(dāng)于as soon as

(3) Hardly (scarcely) had he gone when she appeared. 他一走， 她就出現(xiàn)了。

(4) No sooner had I gone outside than the phone rang. 我剛出屋電話鈴就響了。

有些表時(shí)間的短語亦可引導(dǎo)時(shí)間狀語從句，如the instance, the minute, the moment, the day, every time, each time, by the time, next time, the first (second, third) time, etc.

(5) Next time you come, please bring you composition.

(6) the minute he saw her he fell in love.

有些短語亦可引導(dǎo)原因狀語從句， 如by reason that, for fear that, now that, on the ground that , seeing that, in case, etc.

(7) He took an umbrella with him, for fear it might rain.

(8) I do remember, now (that) you mentioned it.

(9) he resigned on the ground hta his health was failing.

(10)

(11)

(12)

(13)

(14)

(15)

(21)

（1）

（2）

（3） (10) I’ll take my raincoat in case it rains. 原因狀語從句也可由because of, by virtue of, in the light of, in view of, on account of, owing to, due to, etc. +the fact that 構(gòu)成。 從屬連詞（that）有時(shí)亦有的含義， 尤其在與此同時(shí)連用的情況下： (11) If you don’t pay us, we could take you to court--- not that we would do such a thing. (12) Not that I dislike the work, but that I have no time. 目的狀語從句中常用may (might); shall (should): will (would); can (could) 等情態(tài)動(dòng)詞： (13)Speak clearly so that they may understand you. Lest, in case 也可以引導(dǎo)目的狀語從句，地但是是否定的意思， 意為， “以免”“以防”。 lest引導(dǎo)的常用should, would, could等虛擬式, 常用于書面形式，in case 引導(dǎo)的則不用： (14) take your umbrella in case it rains. (15) Take your umbrella with you lest it should rain. 結(jié)果狀語從句由 that, so that, such that, with the result that 等引導(dǎo)： （16）Are you starving that you must steal? Have you another sweetheart hidden somewhere that you leave me in the cold? I was in the bath, with the result that I didn’t hear the telephone. It’s such a good chance that we mustn’t miss it. （也可看成程度狀語從句） 程度狀語從句由so that, such that, to the degree that, as far as, as long as 等引導(dǎo): He was so angry that he could not speak. His anger was such that he could not speak. ( 較上句正式) 條件狀語從句的關(guān)聯(lián)詞有， if, unless. Suppose, supposing, assuming, providing, provided, in the event, given, in case, on condition, as (so) long as: you’ll be late unless you hurry. (16) Suppose we are late, what will he say? (17) Supposing it rains, shall we go? (18) Providing you promise not to tell anyone else, I’ll explain the secret. (19)  Assuming that you are right, we’ll make a great deal of money out of the project. (20) He’ll do anything as long as it is interesting. 讓步狀語從句的關(guān)聯(lián)詞有though, although, even though, if, even if, for all that, in spite of the fact: they are good people, for all that their ways are not the same as ours. 由疑問詞+ever 構(gòu)成的復(fù)合詞也可引導(dǎo)讓步狀語從句，不論或不管的意思：       （24）you can’t come in, whoever you are.        (25) whichever method you use, the result is much the same. 上述結(jié)構(gòu)的復(fù)合詞在口語中可由no matter+疑問詞構(gòu)成： 從屬連詞whether… or…, no matter whether … or 也可引導(dǎo)讓步狀語從句： (26) I’m going whether it is raining or not. (27) I’ll go whether you come with me or stay at home. 方式狀語從句由 as, as if, as though, the way, how 等引導(dǎo)： He looks as if he is tired. Do it the way you were taught.  Do it how you can.

在非正式英語中，亦可用作關(guān)連詞引導(dǎo)方式狀語從句：

（30）Birds don’t have feelings like we do.